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PROGRESSIVE    COURSE 


INYENTIYE    DRAWING 


PRINCIPLES   OF  PESTALOZZI, 


THE  USE  OF  TEACHERS  AND  SELF-INSTRUCTION  ; 


ALSO  WITH  A  VIEW  TO   ITS   ADAPTATION  TO 


ART    AND    MANUFACTURE. 


WM.    J.   WHITAKER, 

PRINCIPAL    OF     THE    BOSTON     SCHOOL    OP     ART    AND    DESIGN,     AND     LECTURER 
ON    DRAWING    IN    THE    MASSACHUSETTS     TEACHERS'   INSTITUTES. 


JFfrst  bourse. 


BOSTON: 
TTCKNOR,    REED,    AND    FIELDS. 

M  DCCC  LIII. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1852,  by 
WILLIAM    J.    WHITAKER, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


PRINTED  BY  THURSTON,  TORRY,   AND   EMERSON. 


TO 

HERMANN    KRUSI 

(son  op  the  first  coadjutor  op  the  venerated  pestalozzi), 

from  whom  i  received  the  first  principles  op  this  course  of  inventive 

drawing,  and  to  whose  kindness  and  brotherly  regard, 

i  am  indebted  for  many  valuable  lessons  in 

the  true  science  op  education, 

THIS    LITTLE    WORK 

IS  VERY  AFFECTIONATELY    DEDICATED  BY  HIS  SINCERE  FRIEND  AND 
FELLOW-WORKER, 


WM.  J.  WHITAKER. 


417  Washington  Street,  Boston, 
Aug.  20,  1852. 


DEFINITION 

OF 

GEOMETRICAL    FORMS 

USED  IN  THIS  COURSE   OF  DRAWING. 


An  Angle  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  lines. 
A  Right  Angle  is  obtained  by  drawing  one  straight  line  perpen- 
dicular on  another. 
An  Acute  Angle  is  that  which  is  less  than  a  right  angle. 
An  Obtuse  Angle  is  thai  which  is  greater  than  a  right  angle. 
A  Triangle  is  a  space  enclosed  by  three  lines. 
A  Right-angled  Triangle  is  that  which  has  a  right  angle. 
An  Acute-angled  Triangle  is  that  which  has  three  acute  angles. 
An  Obtuse-angled  Triangle  is  that  which  has  an  obtuse  angle. 
A  Four-sided  Figure  is  a  space  enclosed  by  four  lines. 
A  Square  is  that  which  has  all  its  sides  equal,  and  all  its  angles 

right  angles. 
An  Oblong,  or  Rectangle,  is  that  which  has  all  its  angles  right 

angles,  and  its  parallels  equal. 
A  Rhomb  is  that  which  has  all  its  sides  equal,  but  its  angles 

are  not  right  angles. 
A  Rhomboid  is  that  which  has  its  parallels  equal,  but  its  angles 

are  not  right  angles. 
A  Parallel  Trapezium  is  that  which  has  two  sides  parallel  and 

two  divergent. 
A  Trapeziod  is  that  which  has  no  parallel  sides. 
A  Circle  is  a  curved  line  enclosing  a  space,  and  at  equal  distance 

in  all  points  from  the  centre. 
An  Arc  is  any  part  of  a  circle. 


INTRODUCTION 


The  Author  of  this  Course  of  Inventive  Drawing 
addresses  himself  especially  to  the  Teacher,  his  object 
being  to  guide  him  in  his  efforts  to  develop  a  correct 
power  of  design.  This  can,  in  his  opinion,  only  be 
done  by  cultivating  the  inventive  faculties,  making  the 
children  produce  a  graduated  series  of  figures  of  their 
own  creation,  thus  combining  a  correct  knowledge  of 
form  with  tasteful  application. 

The  Teacher,  in  placing  the  figures  of  the  book  before 
the  pupils,  making  them  objects  of  imitation,  would  miss 
the  most  interesting  feature  in  the  lessons  intended  to 
be  conveyed. 

Many  of  the  illustrations  in  this  book  were  designed 
by  a  class  of  poor  children,  previously  ignorant  of  draw- 
ing. The  gradual  development  of  their  powers  increased 
their  interest,  and  led  them  to  discover  that  they  could 
create  forms  surpassing  all  their  previous  irregular  efforts. 

A  moment's  consideration  will  show  that,  when  cor- 
rectness of  eye  accompanies  inventive  talent,  the  devel- 


opment  of  better  taste  will  introduce  into  our  manu- 
factures a  spirit  of  design  worthy  of  execution,  and 
calculated  to  increase  our  comforts,  by  surrounding  us 
with  articles  of  utility,  beautiful  in  their  form  and  con- 
struction, and  at  very  little  more  cost  than  the  clumsy 
productions  we  sometimes  see  around  us. 

Drawing  is  essential  to  all  good  education,  and  emi- 
nently useful  in  every  branch  of  manufacture  and  art. 
It  aids  the  workman  in  carrying  out  the  productions  of 
the  man  of  science,  and  cannot  fail  to  make  him  better 
understand  the  end  for  which  he  labors. 

The  art  of  designing  will  be  much  more  appreciated 
when,  in  the  Primary  and  other  schools,  steps  are  taken 
to  develop  the  fundamental  principles  of  form  in  con- 
nection with  correct  expression  and  ingenuity  of  com- 
bination, and  this  will  never  be  accomplished  by  copying 
alone. 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  has  said,  that  "  Copying  is  only 
a  delusive  kind  of  employment,"  and  there  appears  to 
be  much  truth  in  the  statement;  for  it  certainly  is  not 
calculated  to  awaken  thought  or  expand  the  mind ;  and 
employments  which  have  not  such  a  tendency  can 
scarcely  be  called  substantial  or  useful.  It  is  by  copying 
so  much,  and  neglecting  to  create  for  ourselves,  that  we 
do  not  equal  other  nations  in  originality  of  design. 

If  we  would  be  truly  great  in  any  thing,  we  must 
start  from  its  first  elements,  and  by  gradual  steps  reach 
excellence  or  perfection. 


Schelling,  the  great  German  philosopher,  says,  "  Every 
product  of  art  must,  for  the  sake  of  clear  perception, 
be  analyzed  into  its  separate  elements,  though  the  finished 
whole  will  represent  but  one  harmonious  idea.  We  then 
see  how  it  rises  out  of  the  depths  of  our  imagination, 
by  first  tracing  and  defining  its  limits,  and  afterwards 
developing  an  infinite  richness  of  form,  and  combining 
them  in  a  tasteful  whole,  which  is  presented  to  the  soul  of 
man." 

We  propose  to  arrange  the  following  Lessons  in  Ele- 
mentary Design  in  two  courses. 

The  aim  of  the  First  will  be  the  development  of 
simple  forms,  and  their  elementary  combinations  with 
straight -and  curved  lines. 

The  aim  of  the  Second  will  be  the  development  of 
perspective  on  the  inventive  principle,  with  a  view  to  its 
application  to  the  arts  and  manufactures. 


FIRST    COURSE 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING, 

BASED  UPON  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


FIRST    PART. 


Exercises  with  Straight  Lines. 

All  drawing  may  be  reduced  to  the  simple  element 
of  the  line,  either  straight  or  curved.     Fig.  1. 

A  straight  line  describes  the  shortest  distance  from  one 
point  to  another,  and  always  follows  the  same  direction. 

At  the  first  step  the  child  must  begin  with  the  easier 
of  the  two,  the  straight  line. 

Directions  of  the  Straight  Line. 

A  straight  line  can  be  either  vertical,  horizontal,  or 
slanting.     Fig.  2. 

It  is  important  to  draw  from  the  child  a  clear  idea 
of  the  properties  of  the  straight  line.  For  instance,  the 
Teacher  may  hold  up  a  string  with  a  weight  attached  to 
it,  and  impress  this  on  the  children  as  indicating  the 
vertical  direction.     By  hanging  the  string  over  the  black- 


10 


board,  and  drawing  a  line  parallel  to  it,  he  produces  a 
vertical  line,  and  directs  their  attention  to  outlines  of 
objects  which  follow  this  direction.  Having  clearly  real- 
ized this  idea,  let  them  draw  a  number  of  vertical  lines 
on  their  slates. 

The  horizontal  direction  is  illustrated  by  the  surface 
of  water,  or  the  equally  poised  beam  of  a  balance. 
After  the  children  have  pointed  out  such  lines  in  the 
objects  around  them,  they  draw  a  number  of  horizontal 
lines  on  their  slates. 

To  illustrate  the  slanting  or  oblique  line,  the  Teacher 
holding  in  his  hand  a  pointer,  may  turn  it  round  before 
the  children,  and,  avoiding  the  vertical  and  horizontal 
direction,  lead  them  to  observe,  that  the  slanting  line 
may  incline  more  or  less  to  the  right  or  left. 

THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    COMBINATION. 

To  combine  accurately  the  simple  lines  above  described, 
the  power  of  drawing  each  correctly  is  acquired  and 
augmented  with  the  exercise. 

The  varying  ages  and  capacities  of  the  children  form- 
ing the  class,  demand  care  on  the  part  of  the  Teacher, 
in  order  to  watch  and  guide  their  power  of  combination. 
The  constructive  process  ought  naturally  to  precede  the 
analytic  one ;  whereby  we  observe  that  a  child  with  natu- 
ral inventive  faculties  will  sometimes  create  forms,  incor- 
rect  in  their   design,  whilst  another  of   more  observant 


11 


nature  will  abstract  the  outlines  of  existing  objects  without 
proper  attention  to  the  laws  of  taste.  The  good  Teacher 
endeavors  to  modify  these  tendencies,  and  leads  the  one 
to  perceive  his  want  of  accuracy ;  the  other,  his  need  of 
more  taste  in  his  conceptions. 

In  both,  the  power  of  defining  in  words  the  figures 
they  have  produced  must  be  brought  into  play. 

The  youngest  children  will  form  the  simplest  combi- 
nations, by  placing  a  given  number  of  sticks  on  the 
ground  in  as  many  ways  as  their  ingenuity  can  suggest. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  amusements  the  infant  teacher  can 
introduce,  to  let  the  children  successively  place  the  sticks, 
and  afterwards  imitate  the  figures  thus  formed  on  their 
own  slates.  By  this  exercise,  the  relation  between  a  tan- 
gible form  produced  by  the  sticks,  and  the  expression  of 
that  form  by  lines  will  be  clearly  developed  in  their 
minds. 

We  introduce  here  a  lesson  on  the  combination  of  two 
lines,  supposing  the  children  before  us  to  be  from  six  to 
eight  years  of  age. 

Lesson  on  the  Combination  of  Two  Lines. 

Teacher.  I  wish  to  see  two  lines  drawn  on  the  black- 
board ;  who  will  come  and  do  it  nicely  ? 

Child  comes  and  draws  two  lines.     Fig.  3,  a. 
Teacher.     Who  can  draw  two  lines  differently  ? 
Child  may  do  it.     Fig.  3,  b. 


12 


Teacher.  Now,  suppose  you  make  one  line  touch 
another  ?     Fig.  3,  d,  e,  f. 

This  the  children  can  do  in  three  ways,  by  leaving  a 
greater  or  less  space  between  the  lines. 

The  Teacher  may  lead  them  to  find  some  more  com- 
binations. 

The  Teacher  having  let  the  children  exhaust  these 
combinations,  must  draw  their  attention  to  the  difference 
between  each  figure,  and  eliciting  their  remarks  about 
lines  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  may  give  them 
the  word  "  parallel,"  and  apply  it  to  all  the  figures  where 
it  occurs.  Thus  making  them  describe  figures  a,  b,  c,  as 
two  parallel  horizontal,  two  parallel  vertical,  two  parallel 
slanting  lines. 

The  word  "angle"  may  likewise  be  given  to  some  of 
the  combinations ;  and  after  comparing  them  with  each 
other,  the  names  "right,"  "acute,"  and  "obtuse"  angle. 
The  remainder  of  the  figures  produced  may  also  be 
described  in  a  similar  way. 

Combination  of  Three  Straight  Lines. 

The  Teacher,  after  telling  the  children  to  place  three 
sticks  in  various  positions,  will  have  such  figures  copied  on 
the  blackboard,  and  will  soon  obtain  the  following  combi- 
nations, based  upon  the  preceding  ones  —  which  are  to  be 
described  by  the  children  in  the  same  method  as  mentioned 
in  the  former  lesson,  namely,  the  first  four  combinations 


13 


being  composed  of  parallels,  the  others  of  different 
angles.     (See  Illustration,  Fig.  4.) 

The  triangles  produced  by  these  three  lines  will  elicit 
the  remark,  that  now  they  are  able  to  enclose  a  space. 
The  difference  existing  between  triangles  must  be  devel- 
oped, and  the  distinctive  names  applied,  such  as  Right- 
angled,  Acute-angled,  Obtuse-angled. 

A  fresh  and  agreeable  impulse  may  be  given  to  this 
lesson,  by  leading  the  children  to  discover  how  many  letters 
of  the  Alphabet  may  be  found  by  the  combination  of  three 
lines. 

Most  likely  the  children,  and  especially  the  bss  gifted 
ones,  will  produce  irregular  and  badly  executed  designs; 
and  it  is  important  that  accuracy  and  neatness  be  required. 
Their  eye  must  be  educated  to  symmetry,  and  the  most 
tasteful  designs  held  up  as  best,  whilst  the  careless  and 
disproportioned  figures  are  only  brought  before  the  children 
to  let  them  discover  their  defects. 


The  Combination  of  Four  Straight  Lines. 

This  combination  leads  to  a  new  feature  in  the  exercise, 
namely,  the  application  of  this  inventive  drawing  to  the 
representation  of  simple  objects  in  nature.  But,  on  enter- 
ing this  path,  the  Teacher  must  guard  against  being  too 
severe  in  what  might  be  called  violation  of  the  laws  of 
Perspective,  if  the  child  should  attempt  to  produce  some- 
thing that  is  meant  to  resemble  an  object.  He  is  rather  to 
2 


14 


consider  such  an  attempt  as  a  rough  and  unfinished,  outline 
that  would  afterwards  receive  a  more  finished  appearance 
with  the  assistance  of  perspective  brought  in  on  a  higher 
step. 

This,  however,  will  limit  the  designs  of  this  first  Course 
to  be  either  the  representation  of  rough  outlines,  or  that 
of  flat  surfaces,  rejecting  all  regular  indication  of  breadth 
and  thickness. 

After  having  collected  the  most  common  combinations 
with  four  lines,  by  which  some  more  of  the  letters  of  the 
Alphabet  are  produced,  the  Teacher  may  draw  on  the 
blackboard  some  figures  to  illustrate  the  object  just  men- 
tioned.    Fig.  5. 

The  quick  perception  of  the  children  will  discover  the 
tendency  of  this  hint,  and  will  rapidly  produce  many  other 
outlines  of  material  objects,  and  of  four-sided  figures 
enclosing  a  space. 

These  must  be  particularly  dwelt  upon,  and  their  respec- 
tive qualities  described. 

Before  giving  the  graduated  series  of  combinations  with 
straight  and  curved  lines,  a  few  hints  upon  the  manage- 
ment of  a  large  class  may  be  acceptable  to  the  Instructor. 

HINTS     FOR    THE     PROPER    MANAGEMENT    OF    THE 
SUBJECT     IN    A    LARGE     CLASS. 

The  Teacher  calls  several  children,  that  is,  one  child 
after  another,  to  the  blackboard ;  and,  having  specified  the 


15 


combination,  lets  the  child  draw  its  own  design.  When  the 
board  is  full,  (which  will  soon  be  the  case,)  the  Teacher 
effaces  the  whole,  and  desires  the  class  to  draw  as  many 
of  the  combinations  as  they  can  recollect  on  their  own 
slates,  together  with  new  combinations  which  were  not 
there  before.  After  a  certain  time  he  selects  off  each  slate 
the  best  designs,  and  presents  them  again  to  the  whole 
class,  having  drawn  them  nicely  upon  the  blackboard, 
pointing  out  why  those  figures  are  the  best,  and  putting 
such  questions  as  will  illustrate  the  parts  of  the  design  and 
elicit  the  proper  name  and  definition.  He  may  also  bid 
the  children,  and  especially  the  less  talented  ones,  copy 
correctly  the  best  of  the  new  designs. 

The  reward  of  a  blank  piece  of  paper,  with  permission 
to  bring  from  home  more  and  better  designs,  is  eagerly 
sought  for  and  excites  a  spirit  of  emulation  and  industry. 

It  is  needless  to  illustrate  farther  lessons  on  the  com- 
binations to  be  produced  by  simple  straight  lines.  The 
Teacher  may  prolong  and  vary  such  exercises  according 
to  the  requirements  of  his  class.  He  will  possibly  be  more 
successful  with  little  children  than  with  older  pupils, 
because  the  former  enter  with  more  of  the  proper  spirit 
into  this  congenial  mode  of  occupation. 

Childhood  is  the  age  when  the  power  of  combination  is 
most  active.  To  direct  its  operations  in  systematic  pro- 
gression leads  to  their  application  to  inventive  art,  and 
prepares  the  ground  for  original  conceptions  in  the  higher 
regions  of  the  arts. 


16 


The  Instructor  who  has  the  cause  of  Education  at  heart, 
will  attribute  a  greater  value  to  these  exercises  on  com- 
bination than  the  mere  novelty  they  may  possess,  and  will 
upon  a  fair  trial  perceive  that  these  elementary  exercises 
are  the  necessary  condition  for  obtaining  higher  results  in 
proportion  to  the  child's  faculties;  he  will  perceive  a 
powerful  impulse  given  to  the  class  not  only  felt  during 
school  hours,  but  active  everywhere  in  the  contemplation 
of  every  work  of  beauty,  thus  forming  another  link  in  what 
may  be  termed  an  organic  system  of  Education. 

ANGLES. 

The  Teacher  draws  the  Right,  Acute  and  Obtuse  Angles, 
leading  the  Class  to  a  definition  of  all  and  a  careful 
comparison  of  each  with  the  others.  Fig.  6.  When 
thoroughly  understood,  let  the  pupils  draw  them  each 
separately,  and  also  in  the  graduated  form  of  one  within 
another.  Fig.  7.  When  produced  with  tolerable  correct- 
ness, proceed  to  the 

Combination  of  Two  Right  Angles. 
'Fig.  8,  a. 

Here  the  Teacher  should  draw  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  the  mode  of  combination,  it  being  requisite  to 
prevent  the  angles  from  touching  each  other,  as  it  would 
increase  the  elements.  We  therefore  divide  Combination 
into  two  classes  —  namely ,' relative  when  not  touching  as 
in  parallel  lines,  &c. ;  and  positive  when  in  absolute  con- 


17 


tact.  Relative  combination  is  used  in  the  present  and 
succeeding  exercises. 

Combination  of  Four  Right  Angles.       Fig.  8,  b. 

Combination  of  Two  Acute  Angles.       Fig.  9,  a. 

Combination  of  Four  Acute  Angles.       Fig.  9,  b. 

Combination  of  Two  Obtuse  Angles.      Fig.  10,  a. 

Combination  of  Four  Obtuse  Angles.     Fig.  10,  b. 

Combination  of  Four  Right  and  Four  Acute  Angles. 
Fig.  11. 

Combination  of  Four  Right  and  Four  Obtuse  Angles. 
Fig.  12. 

Combination  of  Four  Right,  Four  Acute,  and  Four  Ob- 
tuse Angles.     Fig.  13. 

TRIANGLES. 

When  the  combinations  of  the  angles  are  completed, 
place  those  triangles  before  the  pupils  which  are  dis- 
tinguished as  the  right-angled,  acute-angled,  and  obtuse 
angled  triangles ;  leading  them  to  point  out  their  distinctive 
parts  and  qualities.     Fig.  14. 

Combine  Four  Right-angled  Triangles. 

Combine  Four  Acute-angled  Triangles. 

Combine  Four  Obtuse-angled  Triangles. 

Combine  Four  Right  and  Four  Acute-angled  Triangles. 

Combine  Four  Right  and  Four  Obtuse-angled  Triangles. 

Combine  Four  Right,  Four  Acute,  and  Four  Obtuse- 
angled  Triangles. 

Combine  any  number  of  Triangles.     Fig.  15. 


18 


FOUR-SIDED    FIGURES. 


The  Teacher,  in  introducing  these  figures,  must  point 
out  to  the  class  that  their  character  depends  on  their 
opposite  sides  being  parallel  or  divergent,  and  on  the 
difference  of  their  angles,  as  will  be  seen  by  compari- 
son. 

These  figures  when  combined,  may  be  applied  to  various 
objects,  as  the  flat  sides  of  buildings,  wherein  we  allow 
some  relaxation  of  the  hitherto  strictly  observed  rule  of 
showing  the  parts  separated,  occasionally  allowing  them  to 
be  fitted  together. 

Combine  Four  Squares. 

Combine  Four  Oblongs. 

Combine  Four  Squares  and  Four  Oblongs. 

Combine  Four  Rhombs. 

Combine  Four  Parallel  Trapeziums. 

Combine  Four  Rhombs  and  Four  Trapeziums. 

Combine  Twelve  Four-sided  Figures.     Fig.  16. 

Combine  any  number  of  Four-sided  Figures. 

Combine  any  number  of  Three  and  Four-sided  Figures. 


19 


SECOND  PART  OF  THE  FIRST  COURSE. 


COMBINATIONS    WITH    CURVED    LINES. 

To  introduce  the  curved  line  properly,  the  Teacher 
draws  it  in  its  simplest  form  (the  arc)  on  the  blackboard, 
or  slate,  together  with  a  straight  line,  in  order  to  draw  the 
attention  of  the  children  to  the  difference  between  them. 
They  will  find  by  observation  that  a  straight  line  always 
proceeds  in  the  same  direction,  describing  the  shortest  way 
from  one  point  to  another,  while  the  curved  line  con- 
tinually changes  its  direction. 

Again,  they  will  see  that  the  sides  of  the  curved  line 
are  very  different  in  character,  being  concave  (hollow)  on 
the  one  side,  and  convex  (rounded)  on  the  other,  which 
may  be  exemplified  by  some  tangible  object,  as  a  watch, 
glass,  &c. 

The  Teacher  may  then  let  the  pupils  draw  a  number 
of  arcs  in  different  positions,  in  order  to  practise  first  the 
drawing  of  the  line  itself,  and  then  proceed j-to  com- 
bination. 

CURVILINEAR    ANGLES. 

By  the  combination  of  two  curved  lines,  three  angles 
may  be  produced,  the  definition  of  which  the  children 
must  be  led  to  find  for  themselves,  namely  :  the  Convex, 


20 


the  Concave,  and  the  Mixed  Angle  —  viewing  their  sides 
from  the  interior.     Fig.  17. 

Combine  Four  Concave  Angles.      Fig.  18. 

Combine  Four  Convex  Angles.        Fig.  19. 

Combine  Four  Mixed  Angles.  Fig.  20. 

Combine  Four  Concave  and  Four  Convex  Angles.  Fig. 
21. 

Combine  Four  Concave  and  Four  Mixed  Angles.  Fig. 
22. 

Combine  Four  Concave,  Four  Convex,  and  Four  Mixed 
Angles.     Fig.  23. 

Combine  any  number  of  Curvilinear  Angles. 

The  pupil  should  be  here  informed  that  those  designs 
are  the  best  and  most  beautiful  which  show  simplicity  in 
their  construction,  and  when  the  conception  can  be  easily 
grasped  by  the  observer. 

TWO-SIDED    FIGURES. 

These  may  be  formed  in  two  different  ways,  both  of 
which  must  be  defined  by  the  pupils.     Fig.  24. 
Combine  Four  Two-sided  Figures,  No.  1. 
Combine  Four  Two-sided  Figures,  No.  2. 
Combine  Four  Two-sided  Figures,  No.  1  and  2. 
Combine  any  number  of  Two-sided  Figures. 

CURVILINEAR    TRIANGLES. 

To  supply  the  want  of  distinctive  names  for  these 
figures,  we  number  them  1,  2,  3,  4.     Fig.  25. 


21 


Combine  Four  Curvilinear  Triangles,  No.  1. 
Combine  Four  Curvilinear  Triangles,  No.  2. 
Combine  Four  Curvilinear  Triangles,  No.  3. 
Combine  Four  Curvilinear  Triangles,  No.  4. 
Combine  Four  Curvilinear  Triangles,  No.  1  and  2. 
Combine  Four  Curvilinear  Triangles,  No.  3  and  4. 
Combine  any  number  of  Curvilinear  Triangles. 
Combine  any  number  of  Two  and  Three-sided  Curvi- 
linear Figures.     Fig.  26. 

FOUR-SIDED    FIGURES. 

When  the  pupils  are  called  on  to  produce  these  figures 
they  will  soon  find  several  of  very  different  character,  the 
only  condition  being  that  the  four  lines  must  enclose  one 
space.  The  angles  in  this  series  will  not  always  be  found 
inside,  but  frequently  outside ;  therefore  we  arrange  them 
into  two  classes,  namely  — 

Four- sided  Figures  with  all  their  angles  inside.    Fig.  27. 

Four-sided  Figures,  having  part  or  all  their  angles  out- 
side.    Fig.  28. 

While  going  through  this  graduated  course  of  exercises, 
the  pupils  will  in  all  probability  have  acquired  boldness  of 
execution,  and  will  naturally  be  induced  on  this  step  to 
give  some  of  their  lines  a  softer  and  more  undulated 
appearance,  which  must  not  be  checked,  as  it  is  a  mani- 
festation of  correct  taste.  Thus  a  third  class  may  be 
produced.     Fig.  29. 


22 


As  the  powers  of  combination  will  have  considerably- 
increased,  the  Teacher  may  cease  to  limit  the  number  of 
figures  to  be  combined,  making  the  next  exercise  the 

Combination  of  any  number  of  Four-sided  Figures. 

Combine  any  number  of  Two  and  Four-sided  Figures. 

Combine  any  number  of  Three  and  Four-sided  Figures. 

As  a  concluding  Exercise,* we  give  the  combination 
on  any  number  of  two,  three  and  four-sided  curvilinear 
figures,  which  will  well  test  the  efficiency  and  progress  of 
the  pupils  both  in  execution  and  design.  If  well  directed, 
they  will  produce  many  combinations,  rich  and  varied  in 
character,  considering  the  limited  material  given  as  a 
foundation,  and  their  conceptive  faculties  will  have  re- 
ceived a  powerful  impulse  in  the  right  direction,  namely, 
a  longing  for  the  beautiful  and  true,  both  in  Nature  and 
Art.     Fig.  30. 

In  going  through  the  various  exercises  of  this  elementary 
course,  it  will  be  requisite  for  the  Teacher  to  direct  his 
pupils  to  the  critical  examination  of  the  various  objects 
around,  not  to  copy  them  mechanically,  but  to  be  enabled 
to  reduce  them  to  their  primary  basis, • so  that  the  mind 
may  clearly  comprehend  the  end  for  which  it  labors. 
Take  for  instance  the  Acanthus  leaf,  a  form  that  most 
young  designers  stumble  over  without  any  just  cause  ;  for 
if  it  is  examined  with  care  and  attention  it  will  be  found 
to  consist  only  of  three  simple  parts,  which  many  times 
repeated  make  up  the  whole  of  that  rich  and  classic 
form. 


23 


The  exercises  on  the  curvilinear  angles  may  be  pro- 
longed at  the  discretion  of  the  Teacher,  and  applied  to 
various  forms,  such  as  leaves,  flowers,  vases,  wreaths, 
&c. ;  requiring,  at  first,  distinctness  for  every  elemental 
part,  and  afterwards  allowing  them  to  be  united,  so  train- 
ing the  pupil  to  correctness  and  clearness  of  application,  as 
well  as  giving  power  to  the  eye  and  hand. 

To  much  should  never  be  given  at  once,  and  no  lesson 
should  be  hurried  over,  for  whatever  may  be  apparently 
gained  at  the  beginning,  will  only  cause  disappointment 
and  trouble  when  on  the  higher  steps. 

Another  good  plan  is  to  direct  the  pupils  to  apply  the 
exercises  given  to  various  useful  purposes,  such  as  de- 
signs for  carpets,  papers,  prints,  embroidery,  &c.  These 
designs  may  never  be  of  any  real  practical  value  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  but  it  will  be  giving  to  the  student 
variety  of  form,  &c,  keenness  of  perception  that  cannot 
be  otherwise  acquired ;  it  will  lead  them  to  observe  that 
some  forms  harmonize  with  each  other,  while  some  do 
not,  and  also  point  to  the  necessity  of  walking  this  glorious 
world  with  open  eyes,  so  that  the  mind,  catching  inspira- 
tion from  the  works  of  God,  may  ever  be  ashamed  of  pro- 
ducing forms  at  variance  with  the  plan  of  the  great  Artist 
and  Designer  of  the  Universe. 

THE    END. 


IN  PREPARATION,  BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR, 

THE  SECOND   COURSE  OF  INVENTIVE   DRAWING, 

CONTAINING     THE     DEVELOPMENT     AND     APPLICATION    OF 

LINEAR  AND    SOLID   PERSPECTIVE. 

ALSO, 

A    SERIES    OF    ESSAYS 

ON  THE    USES    AND    ENDS    OF    ARTISTIC    STUDIES. 


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